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пятница, 21 октября 2016 г.

Anzick-1

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Anzick Boy

Common name Anzick Boy

Species Homo sapiens

Age 12,707–12,556 years BP

Place discovered Near Wilsall, Montana, U.S.

Date discovered 1968

Anzick-1 is the name given to the remains of Paleo-Indian male infant found in western Montana, U.S. in 1968 that date to 12,707–12,556 years BP.^[1] The child was found with over 115 tools made of stone and antlers and dusted with red ocher, suggesting an honorary burial.^[2] Anzick-1 is the only human that has been discovered from the Clovis Complex, and is the first ancient Native American genome to be fully sequenced.^[3]
Paleogenomic analysis of the remains revealed Siberian ancestry and a close genetic relationship to modern Native Americans.^[1]^[3] These findings support the hypothesis that modern Native Americans are descended from Asian populations who crossed Beringia between 32,000 and 18,000 years ago.^[1]^[3]
Anzick-1's discovery and subsequent analysis is controversial because although the researchers did not violate the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA), many Montana tribal members believe they should have been consulted before the analysis of the infant's skeleton and genome.^[4]
Anzick-1 was reburied on June 28, 2014 in the Shields River Valley in an intertribal ceremony.^[2] The artifacts associated with the first burial are archived at the Montana Historical Society in Helena, Montana.^[2]

Contents
Discovery
The Anzick site was accidentally discovered by a construction worker in a collapsed rock shelter near Wilsall, Montana.^[5]^[6] The remains were found on the ranch of the Anzick family.^[4] The Anzick-1 remains were found buried under numerous tools, 100 stone tools and 15 remnants of tools made of bone.^{[citation needed]} The site contained hundreds of stone projectile points, blades, and bifaces as well as two juveniles.^[6] Some of the artifacts were covered in red ocher.^[6] The stone points were identified as part of the Clovis Complex because of their distinct shape and size.^[5] Originally, the two human skeletons were both thought to contemporaneous with the Clovis Complex stone points, but later carbon dating revealed that only one of the human skeletons, Anzick-1, was from the Clovis period.^[5] Anzick-1 predates the other skeleton by two millennia.^[5]

Osteological findings
Anzick-1's skeletal remains included 28 cranial fragments, the left clavicle, and several ribs.^[5] These bones were discovered in highly fragmented states; however, partial reconstruction of the crania allowed for age estimation, investigation of basic health indicators, and some information about cultural practices. Originally, investigators thought the left clavicle showed evidence of cremation, but further analysis revealed that the discoloration was the result of groundwater staining and not fire.^[5] Additionally, all of the Anzick-1 remains were stained with ocher, which masks the natural color of the infant's bones.^[5]

Age estimation
The age at death of an individual can be determined from several skeletal markers including cranial suture closure, tooth eruption rates, rates of epiphyseal fusion on long bones, and others.^[7] Cranial bones fuse together along suture lines throughout the life of every human, and can be used to estimate the age at death of human remains.^[7] The small size and lack of suture closure of Anzick-1's crania revealed that the individual was 1–2 years old.^[5] The metopic suture is also present in the frontal bone of Anzick-1. This suture is present in most human infants but closes well before adulthood. The presence of a frontal suture in Anzick-1's remains corroborates the age estimation of 1–2 years old.

Skeletal markers of health
Cranial bones can also be useful for detecting evidence of physiological perturbations.^[7] Porotic hyperostosis is characterized by porous lesions on the parietal, occipital, and sometimes frontal bones.^[8] Cribra orbitalia is another pathological skeletal lesion that manifests as porosity on the orbital roof.^[8] Both porotic hyperostosis and cribra orbitalia are indicators of a nutritional deficiency that leads to anemia.^[9] The reconstructed frontal, parietal, and occipital bone fragments of Anzick-1 were analyzed for these indicators of health; however, the crania showed no evidence of cribra orbitalia or porotic hyperostosis.^[5]

Cranial vault modification
Many cultures use wrappings and boards to manipulate the malleable cranial bones of infants into different shapes which may hold cultural significance.^[10] This practice has been recorded in several different bioarchaeological contexts throughout the Americas.^[10] The shape of Anzick-1's cranial vault revealed no evidence of cultural cranial vault modification.^[5]

Paleogenetic findings
A team of researchers throughout the United States and Europe conducted paleogenetic research on the Anzick-1 skeletal remains. They sequenced the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), the full nuclear DNA, and the Y-chromosome, and compared these sequences to those of modern populations throughout the world.^[1] The results of these analyses allowed the researchers to make conclusions about ancient migration patterns and the peopling of the Americas.
These analyses revealed that the individual was closely related to Native Americans in Central and South America, instead of being closely related to the people of the Canadian Arctic, as had previously been thought. This finding supports the theory that the peopling of the Americas occurred in multiple waves. For more than 20 years anthropologists have debated whether the first settlers who came to the New World did passing the Bering Strait, or sea from the southwest of Europe.

Nuclear DNA analysis
Human nuclear DNA is located inside the nucleus of every cell and makes up the human genome.^[11] Humans inherit half of their nuclear DNA from their mother and half from their father.^[11] Throughout human evolution, mutations occur that are inherited in each subsequent generation.^[11] Different populations have different frequencies of these mutations, and population histories can be ascertained from these mutations by comparing the mutations of one individual to other genomes from specific ethnic groups.^[11] The genome of Anzick-1 was sequenced and analyzed to look for specific mutations that might shed light on the population history of modern Native Americans.^[1] Anzick-1's genome was compared to over 50 Native American genomes for comparison, and researchers found that it was significantly more similar to these Native American genomes than to any modern Eurasian population.^[1] Interestingly, however, Anzick-1's genome was closer to 44 Native American populations from Central and South America than with 7 Native American populations from North America.^[1]

Mitochondrial DNA analysis
MtDNA is DNA located in mitochondria, an organelle that is found in human cells. The mitochondria is maternally inherited and analysis of the mtDNA can provide information about maternal ancestry.^[12] MtDNA genomes are classified into different haplogroups based on a shared common ancestor, and distinct haplogroups provide information about ancient migration patterns.^[13] Morten Rasumssen and Sarah L. Anzick et al. sequenced the mitochondrial DNA of Anzick-1 and determined that the infant represents an ancient migration to North America from Siberia. They found that Anzick-1's mtDNA belongs to the haplogroup D4h3a, a "founder" haplogroup that might represent an early coastal migration route into the Americas.^[1] The D haplogroup is also found in modern Native American populations, which provides a link between Anzick-1 and modern Native Americans.^[14] Although it is rare in most of today's Native Americans in the US and Canada, D4h3a genes are more common in native people of South America, away from Montana cliff below which Anzick-1 was buried. This suggests a greater genetic complexity among Native Americans than previously thought, including an early divergence in the genetic lineage 13,000 years ago. One theory suggested that after crossing into North America from Siberia, a group of the first Americans, with the lineage D4h3a, moved south along the Pacific coast and finally through thousands of years, Central and South America; and others may have moved inland, east of the Rocky Mountains.^[1]

Y-chromosome analysis
The y-chromosome is inherited from father to son in each generation. Because males have an x-chromosome and a y-chromosome, and females have two x-chromosomes, the y-chromosome can only be inherited from a male's father. Specific mutations on the y-chromosome can be used to trace the paternal lineage of a male individual.^[11] Like mtDNA, these mutations can be grouped and categorized into haplogroups. The y-chromosome of Anzick-1was sequenced and researchers determined that his y-chromosome haplogroup is Q-L54*(xM3), one of the major founding lineages of the Americas.^[1]

Anzick Boy
Common name	Anzick Boy
Species	Homo sapiens
Age	12,707–12,556 years BP
Place discovered	Near Wilsall, Montana, U.S.
Date discovered	1968

суббота, 30 апреля 2016 г.

Еще раз о дене-кавказских языках: Северо-восточный след

Обсуждение гипотезы о языке «эрбин», относившимся к гипотетической же дене-кавказской макросемье, вызвало такую бурную дискуссию, что в ней стало уже сложно ориентироваться. Некоторые тезисы участников обсуждения повторяются раз за разом, и уже трудно уследить за основной мыслью. Постараюсь разорвать порочный круг и дополнить материал по дене-кавказской гипотезе анализом самой дальней ветви этих языков – на-дене. Точнее, их носителей, живущих на Аляске и северо-западе Канады.

Гаплогруппа P
Гаплогруппа P и её линии
Тип	Y-ДНК
Время появления	~32 тыс. л. н.^[1] (41–27 тыс.л.н.^[2])
Место появления	Центральная, Южная или Юго-Восточная Азия
Предковая группа	MP
Сестринские группы	M
Субклады	Q и R
Мутации-маркеры	92R7_1, 92R7_2, L138, L268, L405, L471/PF5989, L536/PF5860, L721/PF6020, L741, L768/PF5976/YSC0000274, L779/PF5907/YSC0000251, L781/PF5875/YSC0000255,M45/PF5962, M74/N12, P27.1_1/P207, P27.1_2, P69, P226/PF5879, P228/PF5927, P230/PF5925, P235/PF5946, P237/PF5873, P239, P240/PF5897, P243/PF5874, P244, P281/PF5941, P282/PF5932, P283/PF5966, P284, P295/PF5866/S8, Page83, V231

Темы

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пятница, 21 октября 2016 г.

Contents

Discovery

Osteological findings

Age estimation

Skeletal markers of health

Cranial vault modification

Paleogenetic findings

Nuclear DNA analysis

Mitochondrial DNA analysis

Y-chromosome analysis

суббота, 30 апреля 2016 г.

суббота, 20 февраля 2016 г.

вторник, 17 ноября 2015 г.

вторник, 18 августа 2015 г.

четверг, 19 февраля 2015 г.

суббота, 7 февраля 2015 г.

понедельник, 2 февраля 2015 г.

Geographic distribution

понедельник, 4 августа 2014 г.

среда, 28 мая 2014 г.

четверг, 13 марта 2014 г.

понедельник, 20 января 2014 г.

воскресенье, 12 января 2014 г.

суббота, 2 ноября 2013 г.

суббота, 12 октября 2013 г.

среда, 11 сентября 2013 г.

суббота, 23 февраля 2013 г.

четверг, 27 декабря 2012 г.

пятница, 6 января 2012 г.

пятница, 21 октября 2016 г.

суббота, 30 апреля 2016 г.

суббота, 20 февраля 2016 г.

вторник, 17 ноября 2015 г.

вторник, 18 августа 2015 г.

четверг, 19 февраля 2015 г.

суббота, 7 февраля 2015 г.

понедельник, 2 февраля 2015 г.

понедельник, 4 августа 2014 г.

среда, 28 мая 2014 г.

четверг, 13 марта 2014 г.

понедельник, 20 января 2014 г.

воскресенье, 12 января 2014 г.

суббота, 2 ноября 2013 г.

суббота, 12 октября 2013 г.

среда, 11 сентября 2013 г.

суббота, 23 февраля 2013 г.

четверг, 27 декабря 2012 г.

пятница, 6 января 2012 г.